SCIENCE PROGRAMS AT WILLIAMS COLLEGE

Students learn science best when they formulate and test their own hypotheses, using methods capable of producing convincing evidence. This is true at the elementary level, where students become interested in further study by encountering science as discovery rather than rote facts. It is even more important at advanced levels, where students are most likely to become interested in science careers by working as fully involved junior colleagues with professionally active faculty on research projects that develop new science. The ability to conduct competitive research at Williams helps to attract talented scientists as faculty and keeps them current, so that the diverse range of science courses reflects new results and perspectives. For faculty to involve students in research, to produce publishable results, to compete for research funding, to teach effectively in a formal classroom setting, and to continually bring modern ideas into course laboratories, requires substantial support in the way of modern facilities, instrumentation, supplies and technical support. Williams College long ago recognized this need. With the construction of the Bronfman Science Center in 1967, we established the kind of facilities and support programs recommended by studies such as the 1986 National Science Board Task Committee on Undergraduate Science and Engineering Education. As our science buildings have been upgraded to provide modern facilities for teaching and student-faculty research, the model of the entire science division as a programmatic unit has flourished. Funds for major equipment, for individual student-faculty research projects, and for stipend support of students doing research with faculty are coordinated on a division-wide basis by the Science Executive Committee and the Divisional Research Funding Committee. By working together, we are able to share not only facilities and equipment, but also ideas and enthusiasm, and so provide a “critical mass” of activity that might not be possible within an individual department at a small institution.

About seventeen years ago, Williams College affirmed its commitment to training future scientists by establishing a mechanism for identifying applicants with an expressed interest in pursuing a Ph.D. in science. Since that time, about 15% of each incoming class have expressed interest in careers in science. The high quality of the College’s science programs has maintained this interest and nearly all of those students continue in science. Thus, in the past decade Williams College has become a leader in the training of future scientists with more than 50 students going on to Ph.D. programs in science each year. The quality of this training is evidenced by the number of National Science Foundation (NSF) Predoctoral Fellowships awarded to Williams graduates in the past ten years. During that time, Williams has ranked first among predominantly undergraduate institutions, averaging about 10 NSF Fellowships per year. We attribute this success to an energetic science faculty dedicated to excellence in teaching and to the numerous research opportunities available to Williams students at advanced as well as introductory levels. It has long been recognized that a positive undergraduate research experience is the single most important inspiration for future scientists. As documented later in this report, more than 200 students were engaged in research with Williams faculty this year. More than 55 students conducted independent research projects during the academic year and 176 students were engaged in full-time research with Williams science faculty during the summer. Dozens of Williams students participated in conferences where they presented the results of their research, and many Williams students co-authored publications in peer-reviewed journals.

Concurrent with the increased student involvement in science, Williams has attracted talented and vibrant science faculty engaged in competitive research and dedicated to teaching undergraduates. As a result, the number of external grants awarded to support faculty research or curricular innovation has increased significantly. With 26 active NSF grants this past year, Williams College ranks first among undergraduate institutions in the number of NSF grants awarded to science faculty. The large number of individual faculty grants, together with grants from the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, the Sherman Fairchild Foundation, the Essel Foundation, the Kresge Foundation, the Keck Foundation, and other sources, have enabled us to purchase and maintain sophisticated equipment for teaching and research. Emphasizing close student-faculty interactions, the opportunities in undergraduate science education at Williams are exciting, diverse, and progressive. After years of careful planning by science faculty, a $47 million science facility was completed in fall 2000. This facility unifies all science departments in a single complex surrounding a central science library. The new Science Center, as the complex is now called, will ensure Williams’ place as a leader in undergraduate science education as we enter the next century.

Launched under a five-year grant from the Ford Foundation Initiative for Undergraduate Science Education, “discovery” courses in the sciences have become an integral part of our curriculum. Although the grant has expired, most of these special introductory science courses (described below) have become integral parts of our curriculum. Designed to excite the interest of beginning students through hands-on experiences, the discovery courses are typically taught in a manner that requires students to take a greater responsibility for their own education. They are expected to make observations, formulate hypotheses, gather data, conduct analyses, and evaluate outcomes without the faculty providing them with the anticipated results in advance. The great success of these courses has led to the incorporation of the discovery approach to teaching science in upper-level courses as well.

While covering the same lecture material as other introductory chemistry classes, a special, enriched laboratory program includes activities, which more closely resemble the unpredictable nature and immediacy of true chemical research. Students synthesize, isolate and characterize a family of unknown material in a series of related experiments constituting an integrated, semester-long investigation.

This spring semester, Introduction to Environmental Science (ENVI 102), continued to be revised. The course retains the hands-on approach of learning environmental science by going out and collecting data locally. This project-centered approach is now used to look at local analogues of five themes of global importance: climate change and the carbon cycle, acid deposition, metals in the environment, water quality, and waste treatment and remediation. This year we completed a biomass census in several permanent plots in Hopkins Forest to estimate the amount of CO2 taken up by forest regrowth in Williamstown, analyzed chemical processes in the Living Machine sewage treatment facility at the Darrow School, measured lead in soils from potential urban garden sites in Pittsfield, MA, tested water quality in local streams and ponds, and involved students in a diversity of independent field/lab projects.

Geology Outdoors provides an introduction to geology through student field projects. The mountains, lakes, rivers, and valleys of the Williamstown area provide unusual opportunities for learning geology in the field. Student projects include the study of streams as active agents of erosion and deposition, the effects of glaciation on the New England landscape, and the history of mountain building in the Appalachians. Following several group projects introducing the techniques of field geology, students pursue independent projects on subjects of particular interest to them.

In July 1999, the college received a continuing grant of $750,000 from Connie and Steve Lieber, Class of ’47, to support research in neuroscience. The primary intent of this award, which began in 1992, is to involve students in neuroscience research. During the summer of 2003, 13 Williams students were selected as Essel fellows. These students spent the summer working on research projects with individual faculty members. Most continued their research with either honors theses or independent study work during the 2003-2004 academic year. Essel funding was also used to support two full-time positions to assist in running the neuroscience laboratories. The Neuroscience Program is very fortunate to have such generous support for this rapidly growing area of science.

Dr. Luis Schettino, the Senior Essel Fellow Neuroscience, was in charge of the practical portion of the Introduction to Neuroscience course during the fall semester. He also taught a Winter Study course on the neuropsychological bases of creativity. Dr. Schettino’s research focuses on the neural bases of sensorimotor control. Last year he conducted a human evoked potential experiment designed to explore the timing of cortical activation during the perception of graspable objects as compared to non-graspable ones. Dr. Schettino was assisted in this work by Miles Belknap ’05 and Jason Sloane ’06. Dr. Schettino has accepted a tenure-track position in the Psychology Department of Trinity University in San Antonio, Texas.

Laurel Bifano, the Junior Essel Fellow, graduated from Williams College in 2002 with a concentration in neuroscience, and stayed on to assist in teaching the laboratory sections of neuroscience program courses as well as conducting research with Professor Noah Sandstrom.

Williams College has received 2.3 million dollars in support of a number of science initiatives from Howard Hughes Medical Institute (HHMI) since 1991. These funds have provided summer research opportunities for Williams students, have helped strengthen the curriculum through the purchase of equipment and the support of laboratory development, and have funded elementary and high school outreach programs. Williams College was awarded a four-year grant of $800,000 from the HHMI in 2000. This grant has allowed the strengthening of some existing programs as well as the initiation of others.

The 2000 grant supports Williams College students conducting original research in faculty laboratories on campus during the summer. In addition, funds are available to allow students to attend scientific meetings to present their results. A new initiative provides the opportunity for six students to spend eight weeks at the Marine Biological Laboratory (MBL) in Woods Hole, MA participating in courses, meeting various scientists, and conducting original research. This MBL program is also supported by Howard and Nan Schow and the Essel Foundation grant to Williams College.

The Williamstown Elementary School outreach program that was initiated in 1996 continues to be supported. In addition, similar programs have successfully been initiated at the Brayton and Greylock Elementary Schools in North Adams. Jennifer Swoap, our science liaison, places Williams College students in elementary classrooms and computer laboratories to help teachers in the development and implementation of their science curriculum. In addition, the grant supports a summer science camp for elementary school students and their teachers and a technology camp for elementary school teachers.

A summer outreach program for Berkshire County high school students was initiated in 1991. This month-long program continues to bring four high school students to Williams College each summer to study with Williams faculty and students.

In May of 2004, HHMI awarded a grant of $1.6 million to Williams College, the largest HHMI grant awarded this year among the 42 recipients nationwide. The grant will provide for enhanced research opportunities for Williams College students at Williams and at premier research institutions, and the expansion of summer research opportunities to students at other institutions, notably institutions with records of preparing science teachers. The HHMI grant will support future faculty development by offering a postdoctoral fellowship with a teaching component in the college's new interdisciplinary program in bioinformatics, genomics, and proteomics and facilitate current faculty development by supporting research collaborations between faculty from Williams and Massachusetts College of Liberal Arts, Bennett College, and the University of Texas at San Antonio.  The grant will also provide for expanded outreach activities to local schools with the goal of improving elementary and high school science activities. Wendy Raymond, associate professor of biology, will direct this new grant.

Williams was awarded a grant from the Kresge Foundation in 1990 to replace and update major items of scientific equipment and instrumentation. This three-part grant is being used not only to purchase new equipment, but to support maintenance contracts and the repair of instruments as well. One aspect of the grant is that the College sets aside endowment funds for the depreciation and eventual replacement of items purchased under the grant.

The College has purchased and maintains a 24-inch optical telescope, a gas chromatograph mass spectrometer, a transmission electron microscope, an ultraviolet/visible/near infrared spectrophotometer, and an x-ray diffraction instrument. In recent years, Kresge endowment funds were used to replace earlier models of a scanning electron microscope, a nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometer, an atomic absorption spectrometer and an ion chromatograph. These expensive pieces of core equipment are heavily used by faculty and students in collaborative research projects and in teaching laboratories associated with courses ranging from the introductory to advanced levels.

In January of 2004, the Sherman Fairchild Foundation awarded a $500,000 grant to Williams College for the development of an interdisciplinary program in bioinformatics, genomics, and proteomics (BIGP) at Williams College. The grant will provide Williams College students with the necessary background to make substantial contributions to these exciting new fields of scientific discovery. The BIGP program brings together faculty from the biology, chemistry, computer science, mathematics/statistics, and physics departments in a cutting edge curriculum that promises to stimulate new areas of interdisciplinary research among faculty and students from these five departments.

SMALL is a special summer research program in mathematics funded by the National Science Foundation and the Science Center. About 20 students split into groups of four or five, and work on solving open research problems. Each group has a faculty advisor. In the past, students have published their results in mathematics research journals and have given talks at a variety of math conferences around the country. In the summer of 2004, there were a total of 20 students working in completional cartography, geometry, ergodic theory, mathematical biology, and Riemannian geometry.

The Astronomy Department offers courses for anyone who is interested in studying and learning about the universe, and who would like to be able to follow new astronomical discoveries as they are made. Students can choose between broad non-mathematical survey courses and a more technical introductory course designed for those planning further study in astronomy or another science. As part of the astronomy observing program, all students in the introductory courses use the 24-inch telescope and other telescopes and instruments on the observing deck to study a variety of astronomical objects. The astrophysics major is designed primarily for students who plan graduate study in astronomy, astrophysics or a related field. The major emphasizes the structure of the universe and its constituents in terms of physical processes. Majors in astrophysics usually begin their program with Introduction to Astrophysics (ASTR 111) as well as basic physics courses. Intermediate and advanced level seminars introduce astrophysics majors to current research topics in astronomy, while parallel study of physics completes their preparation for graduate work in astronomy or employment in a related field. The astronomy major is designed for students with a serious intellectual interest in learning about many aspects of modern astronomy, but who might not have planned to undertake physics and math in the more intensive astrophysics major. The astronomy major emphasizes understanding the observed properties of the physical systems that comprise the known universe, from the Sun and solar system to the evolution of stars and star clusters, to the Milky Way Galaxy, to external galaxies and clusters of galaxies, out to quasars and active galaxies. Students considering a major in astronomy, or a double major including astronomy, should consult with members of the Department about appropriate beginning courses. Independent research, extensive use of the observational and image processing computer facilities, field work at remote observatories or on eclipse expeditions and close working relationships with faculty are hallmarks of the astronomy and astrophysics majors.

The Biological Sciences are in a constant state of flux that is reforming our entire view of living systems. Significant breakthroughs are occurring at all levels; from the theoretical to the practical, from health related fields to environmental studies, from animal behavior to molecular biology and biochemistry. In response to these needs the biology curriculum has been designed not only to keep pace with new developments in the field, but also to afford students as broad a base as possible for understanding the principles governing life processes. Four courses The Cell (BIOL 101), The Organism (BIOL 102), Genetics (BIOL 202) and a 400 level senior seminar are required for the major. In addition, five electives may be selected from a wide range of courses including those in cellular biology, immunology, biochemistry, molecular biology, developmental biology, physiology, neurophysiology, ecology and animal behavior. Last year a new sophomore level tutorial in genomics was added to our curriculum; and this year, to accommodate the need for courses in the areas of plant biology and neural development, the Department has added two new courses: Integrative Plant Biology (BIOL 308) and Neural Development (BIOL 310). Every course changes from year to year to emphasize the latest concepts and to introduce techniques and instrumentation used in modern biological research. Although the biology major is specifically designed to provide a balanced curriculum in the broader context of the liberal arts for any interested student, it is also an excellent preparation for graduate studies in medicine and life sciences.

The Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Program is designed to provide students with an opportunity to explore living systems in molecular terms. Biochemistry and molecular biology are dynamic fields that lie at the interface between biology and chemistry. Current applications range from the diagnosis and treatment of disease to enzyme chemistry, developmental biology, and the engineering of new crop plants. After completing the introductory biology and chemistry courses and organic chemistry, a student would normally take the introductory course in the program: Biochemistry I - Structure and Function of Biological Molecule (BIMO 321). This course, taken in conjunction with courses in genetics and molecular genetics, establishes a solid background in biochemistry and molecular biology. The advanced courses and electives available from the chemistry and biology department offerings encourage students’ exploration of individual interests in a wide variety of topics. A senior capstone course, Topics in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (BIMO 401), gives students the chance to explore the scientific literature in a variety of BIMO-related research areas. Completion of the BIMO Program provides exceptional preparation for graduate study in all aspects of biochemistry, molecular biology, and the medical sciences.

Through a variety of individual courses and sequential programs, the Chemistry Department provides an opportunity for students to explore chemistry, an area of important achievement for knowledge about ourselves, and the world around us. For those who elect to major in chemistry, the introductory course, Concepts of Chemistry (CHEM 151, or for those who qualify, CHEM 153 or CHEM 155), is followed by intermediate and advanced courses in organic, inorganic, and physical and biochemistry. These provide a thorough preparation for graduate study in chemistry, chemical engineering, biochemistry, environmental science, materials science, medicine and the medical sciences. Advanced independent study courses focus on the knowledge learned in earlier courses and provide the opportunity to conduct original research in a specific field. For those who elect to explore the science of chemistry while majoring in other areas, the Chemistry Department offers a variety of courses that introduce the fundamentals of chemistry in a context designed to provide students with an enriching understanding of our natural world. Non-majors may investigate chemistry through the following courses: Chemistry and Crime: From Sherlock Holmes to Modern Forensic Science (CHEM 113); AIDS: The Disease and Search for a Cure (CHEM 115); Chemistry for the Consumer in the Twenty-first Century (CHEM 119); Fighting Disease: The Evolution and Operation of Human Medicines (CHEM 111); and Applying the Scientific Method to Archaeology and Paleoanthropology (CHEM 262T).

Computers play an enormously important role in our society. The Computer Science Department seeks to provide students with an understanding of the principles underlying computer science that will enable them to understand and participate in exciting developments in this young field. The Department recognizes that students’ interests in computer science vary widely, and attempts to meet these varying interests through 1) its major program; 2) a selection of courses intended primarily for those who are interested in a brief introduction to computer science or who seek to develop some specific expertise in computing for application in some other discipline; and 3) recommendations for possible sequences of courses for the non-major who wants a more extensive introduction to computer science. Macintosh computers and powerful UNIX workstations, connected via an Ethernet network, enhance computing opportunities for students at all levels. The first course for majors and others intending to take more than a single computer science course is Introduction to Computer Science (CSCI 134). Upper level courses include computer organization, algorithm design, computer graphics, principles of programming languages, artificial intelligence, theory of computing, parallel processing, networks, operating systems, software engineering and compiler design. The computer science major is designed to provide preparation for advance study of computer science and high-level career opportunities, as well as imply a deeper appreciation of current knowledge and the challenges of computer science. For those students interested in learning more about important new ideas and developments in computer science, but who are not necessarily interested in developing extensive programming skills, the department offers three courses. CSCI 106 introduces students to the field of bioinformatics, CSCI 108 provides an introduction to the field of artificial intelligence, and CSCI 105 presents an introduction to the technology behind the World Wide Web.

The Program in Environmental Studies commenced soon after the establishment of the Center for Environmental Studies at Williams in 1967. The ENVI Program allows students to major in traditional departments while taking a diverse series of courses in an integrated, interdisciplinary examination of the environment. The program is designed so that students will grow to realize the complexity of issues and perspectives and to appreciate that many environmental issues lack distinct, sharp-edged boundaries. The goal is to aid students in becoming well-informed, environmentally literate citizens of the planet who have the capacity to become active participants in their communities ranging from the local to the global scale. To this end, the program is designed to develop abilities to think in interdisciplinary ways and to use holistic-synthetic approaches in solving problems while incorporating the knowledge and experiences they have gained by majoring in other departments at the College.

The CES maintains and operates the 2700-acre Hopkins Memorial Forest and its Rosenburg Centerfield Station, 1.5 miles from campus. The Environmental Science Laboratory in the new Morley Science Laboratory is a joint venture between the CES and the science division at Williams.

Professors Art and Fox continued their collaboration of using remote sensing and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to study vegetation and landscape changes in the Hopkins Memorial Forest. Professors David Dethier and Steve Shepard (Economics) taught a course in remote sensing and GIS in the new GIS laboratory located in the Schow Science Library. Professor David Dethier took over as chair of the Hopkins Memorial Forest Users Committee and continued to supervise activities in the Environmental Science Laboratory.

This past year saw a continuation of the science programs at the Hopkins Forest including a variety of research projects. Flynn Boonstra '04 conducted a senior thesis in biology on the patterns of sugar maple growth responses to defoliations, acid deposition, and soil chemistry. Assistant Biology Professor Manuel Morales expanded his study on ant/leaf hopper symbiosis, working with thesis student Bill McDowell ’04. Another continuing study in HMF is the investigation into the growth dynamics of garlic mustard by Professor of Biology, Joan Edwards. In addition, Professor Eric Kramer of Simon's Rock College piloted a study on the transport of the growth hormone indoleacetic acid (IAA) in quaking aspen (Populustremuloides) trees; Dr Kramer will launch this project in earnest during the summer of 2004. In the fall, the Hopkins Forest hosted, for a third season, a banding station for migrating northern saw-whet owls under the direction of Drew Jones and Kenneth Schmidt of Texas Tech University. As usual, the Forest hosted a variety of science-based outreach programs and public events as well as serving as the field site for laboratory investigations for several BIOL and ENVI courses.

The Geoscience major is designed to provide an understanding of the physical and biological evolution of the earth and its surrounding ocean and atmosphere. Dynamic internal forces drive the development of mountain ranges and ocean basins. Waves, rivers, glaciers and wind shape the surface of the earth, providing the landscapes we see today. Fossils encased in sedimentary rocks supply evidence for the evolution of life and record the history of the earth, including a unique record of changing climates. Four introductory courses open to all students include Biodiversity in Geologic Time (GEOS 101); An Unfinished Planet (GEOS 102); Environmental Geology and the Earth’s Surface (GEOS 103); and Oceanography (GEOS 104). A special course limited to twelve first-year students, Geology Outdoors (GEOS 105), presents geology through fieldwork and small group discussions. Courses in the major are designed to provide a foundation for a professional career in the earth sciences, a background for commercial activity such as the marketing of energy or mineral resources, or simply an appreciation of our human heritage and physical environment as part of a liberal arts education. Students often choose electives so as to concentrate in a particular field: for example, environmental geology, oceanography, stratigraphy and sedimentation, or petrology and structural geology. In addition, Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems (GEOS 214); Climate Changes (GEOS 215); Geological Sources of Energy (GEOS 206); and Water and the Environment (GEOS 208), offer surveys of these areas for both non-majors and majors, and especially for students interested in environmental studies.

History of Science, fundamentally an interdisciplinary subject, traces the historical development of the social relations between science and society as well as the development and mutual influence of scientific concepts. The “external” approach emphasizes the relations between science and society, attempting to relate changes and developments in each to the other. The “internal” approach concerns primarily the ways in which technical ideas, concepts, techniques, and problems in science developed and influenced each other. Courses offered in the History of Science Program introduce students who do not major in a science to the content and power of the scientific and technological ideas and forces which have in the past transformed western civilization and which are today transforming cultures the world over. Science majors are introduced to the historical richness and variety of scientific activity, as well as to how that activity reflects upon the changing nature of science itself and upon science’s relationship to society as a whole.

The major program in The Department of Mathematics and Statistics is designed to meet two goals: introducing some of the central ideas in a variety of areas in mathematics, and developing problem-solving ability by teaching students to combine creative thinking with rigorous reasoning. The major includes special recommendations to students interested in applied mathematics or other sciences, engineering, graduate school in mathematics, statistics, actuarial science, and teaching. The major requires calculus, a course in applied/discrete mathematics or statistics, three core courses in algebra and analysis, electives, a senior seminar, and participation in the undergraduate colloquium.

Neuroscience is a rapidly growing field concerned with understanding the relationship between brain, mind, and behavior. The study of this remarkably complex organ, the brain, requires a unique interdisciplinary approach ranging from the molecular to the clinical levels of analysis. The Neuroscience Program is designed to provide students with the opportunity to explore these approaches with an emphasis on hands-on learning. There are now six faculty members in the program, three each from the Psychology and Biology Departments. The curriculum consists of five courses, including an introductory course, three electives, and a senior course. In addition, students are required to take two courses, BIOL 101, and PSYC 101, as prerequisites for the program. Introduction to Neuroscience (NSCI 201) is the basic course and provides the background for other neuroscience courses. Ideally, this will be taken in the first or second year. Electives are designed to provide in-depth coverage including laboratory experience in specific areas of neuroscience. Topics in Neuroscience (NSCI 401) allows an integrative culminating experience in the senior year. This past year, 16 Neuroscience concentrators graduated, one with highest honors. The Neuroscience Program also sponsored or co-sponsored five speakers in the Class of 1960 Scholars colloquium series.

The Physics Department offers two majors, the standard physics major and, in cooperation with the Astronomy Department, an astrophysics major. Either route serves as preparation for further work in pure or applied physics, astronomy, other sciences, engineering, medical research, science teaching and writing, and other careers requiring insight into the fundamental principles of nature. Physics students experiment with the phenomena by which the physical world is known, and the mathematical techniques and theories that make sense of it. They become well grounded in the fundamentals of the discipline: classical mechanics, electrodynamics, optics, statistical mechanics, and quantum mechanics. In addition, many students take special courses on interdisciplinary topics such as Materials Science. Many majors do senior honors projects, in which the student works together with a faculty member in either experimental or theoretical research.

The faculty members of the Psychology Department offer a wide variety of curricular and research opportunities to both major and non-major students. Courses are grouped into the areas of behavioral neuroscience, cognitive psychology, developmental psychology, social psychology, clinical psychology, and educational psychology. After completing Introductory Psychology (PSYC 101), majors take Research Methods and Statistics (PSYC 201), in which they learn the tools used to generate knowledge in psychology, and at least three 200-level courses, which are comprehensive surveys of each of the subfields. They then take the 300 level courses, which are advanced seminars. Many of these are lab courses in which students do an original empirical study, others are discussion seminars, and some are also tutorials or writing-intensive courses. In each, the professors expose students in depth to their specialty areas, and students read and discuss primary literature. The major sequence ends with a capstone course, PSYC 401, a discussion/debate-oriented seminar. A variety of research opportunities are offered through independent study, senior thesis work and the Bronfman Summer Science Program. The psychology major provides sound preparation for graduate study in both academic and professional fields of psychology and is increasingly relevant to careers in business, law, and medicine. In addition to the psychology major curriculum, our students may become concentrators in related programs across the college; most directly related to psychology are the Cognitive Science, Leadership Studies, Legal Studies, and Neuroscience Programs.

Science and Technology Studies (STS) is an interdisciplinary program concerned with science and technology and their relationship to society. Relatively less concerned with distant historical development and philosophical understanding of the ideas and institutions of science and technology, Science and Technology Studies focus more on current ethical, economic, social and political implications. Although many of us acknowledge that science and technology has played a major role in shaping modern industrial societies, few of us, including scientists and engineers, possess any critical or informed understanding of how that process has occurred. We do not have much knowledge of the complex technical and social interactions that direct change in either science or society. The STS program is intended to help students interested in these questions create a coherent course of study from a broad range of perspectives provided in the curriculum. Courses examine the history and philosophy of science and technology, the sociology and psychology of science, the economics of research and development and technological change, science and public policy, technology assessment, technology and the environment, scientometrics and ethical value issues. To complete the requirements of the program, students must complete six courses. The introductory course and senior seminar are required and three elective courses are chosen from the list of designated electives. Students may choose to concentrate their electives in a single area such as Technology, American Studies, Philosophy, History of Science, Economics, Environment, Current Science or Current Technology, but are encouraged to take at least one elective in History, History of Science or Philosophy. The sixth course necessary to complete the program is one semester of laboratory or field science in addition to the College's three-course science requirement.

The January Winter Study Period (WSP) at Williams offers a unique opportunity for concentrated study and research in science. It is particularly valuable for senior thesis research students who are able to devote their full time for a month to their developing projects. Many departments also offer research opportunities to sophomores and juniors during WSP. Projects of lesser complexity than senior thesis projects also are undertaken, often with guidance from more experienced students as well as the supervising faculty member. In addition, the science departments offer many interesting and unusual opportunities to students regardless of whether they intend a science major. Full descriptions of science WSP offerings can be found in the Williams College Bulletin. A few highlights of the 2004 WSP science offerings are given below:

This course explores the world of orchids. First we will consider the aesthetics of orchids and how this fueled both the exploration for new species in the 19th Century and the production of modern hybrids. Next, we will study the biology of orchids particularly the structural and physiological adaptations that have permitted these plants to inhabit sites as diverse as the treetops of tropical forests and the frozen meadows of New England. The complex relationship between flower structure and the behavior of pollinators is of special interest. The fascinating world of the orchid hybridizer will be examined. How is it possible to combine four genera to make one plant? The commercialization of orchids led to the destruction of many natural populations. Is it possible to protect and possibly reestablish endangered species through the cultivation and propagation of orchids from seed? Orchid hybridization and the discovery of methods for the tissue culture of rare plants have revolutionized the commercial availability of orchids. Globalization has affected the orchid industry. We will discuss these recent trends and what it means for those hoping for a career with orchids.

Students will be given the opportunity to examine living plants and flowers of various orchid genera. We will demonstrate the techniques for growing the plants in the greenhouse and within the home. Mature specimens will be repotted and students will deflask seedlings and set up community pots. Students will be required to write a ten-page paper or develop an equivalent presentation on the orchid topic of their choice, to be shared with the class during a final session on the last day of Winter Study.

Two field trips are planned, one to J&L Orchids in Easton, CT, a leader in growing species orchids from seed and the second to Conway Orchids in Conway, MA, a grower of championship Cattleya hybrids.

Attirampakkan is a site in Southern India that has so far yielded well-preserved cultural artifacts of Lower, Middle and Upper Paleolithic deposits, including an Acheulian living floor and animal footprints in association with artifacts. Excavations at the site are sponsored by Earthwatch, which specializes in sending talented and interested amateurs to help professional scientists. It is one of relatively few opportunities for Williams students to participate in professional archaeological research. The vast majority of human prehistory studies have focused either on Africa or Europe. While there have been occasional investigations in the Indian subcontinent (the first stone tool was found by a British geologist in 1863), systematic studies have only been started in the last 10 years. In some ways this is fortunate, given the advances in both excavation technique and artifact analysis in the last century. The goal of the project, of which Attirampakkan is a major part, is to build up a picture of the region in prehistory that will allow paleoanthropologists to test models of hominid behavioral strategies. One question is whether these are affected by climate change in ways also seen in other parts of the world.

The students spend approximately two weeks, plus travel, on site and return to Williamstown to write up the results of their work. While on site they participate in all aspects of excavation including digging, cleaning artifacts, curating them and analyzing collections. Dr. Shanti Pappu, the archaeologist on this site, leads discussions on Indian prehistory to supplement the earlier references. Students keep a daily journal as well as a field notebook. Of course one never knows what will emerge from an excavation in a given time, but the area already excavated would provide study materials in prehistoric archaeology even if few new finds were discovered. Potential analyses include determining the appropriate attribution of material to a given Paleolithic period, correlating artifacts with possible sources of raw material, and interpreting the geology of the site in terms of climate change. However, the primary result for students will be knowledge of what ‘real’ archaeologists do.

Can computers reproduce? Can DNA compute? Can evolution give us hints on solving big problems? Is life's blueprint inefficient? This course looks at the way computers are shaped by biological thinking and the way that experimental biology makes use of computational theories. Topics range from artificial life to identification of genes to the susceptibility of machines to viruses. Lectures investigate new and novel ways of thinking about computers and biology. Labs experiment with parameters of the evolving problems shared between the two scientific disciplines. Evaluation is based upon successful completion of computer laboratory assignments, written assignments and a final paper.

Participants on this trip will spend two-and-a-half weeks on the Baja Peninsula and islands in the Gulf of California. After assembling in San Diego, CA, the group will drive south along the trans-peninsular highway (MEX 1) to the city of Loreto, visiting geologic outcrops and eco-regions that illustrate the unusual tectonic and biological history of the Baja Peninsula and adjacent Gulf of California. Once at Loreto, the group will travel by boat to Carmen and Coronado Islands. Participants should expect primitive conditions and should be willing to contribute to the duties of communal camp life.

Extended stops will be made at two unstudied Gulf of California coastal basins. The basin at San Franciscito is Pliocene in age and formed in granites of (Cretaceous?) age. The basin at Coronado Island abuts the south side of a Pleistocene age volcano. During the trip students will learn to measure stratigraphic sections, map geologic units, collect and identify fossils, and synthesize geologic and biologic data. Course evaluation will be based on completion of a daily journal and a geologic map with explanatory text for the San Franciscito project (10-page equivalent).

This course is designed by Charles Baschnagel ’05 and provides an introduction to the basic strategies behind bluffing in real world situations and techniques of detecting a bluff. Professor Stewart Johnson of the Math/Stat Department will lecture on the game theoretic aspects of bluffing using simplified poker models of Borel and Von Neumann. Professor Steve Fein of the Psychology Department will lecture on interpersonal perception and the detection of lies.

This course will examine the art and science of holography. It will introduce modern optics at a level appropriate for a non-science major, giving the necessary theoretical background in lectures and discussion. Demonstrations will be presented and students will make several kinds of holograms in the lab. Thanks to a grant from the National Science Foundation, we have seven well-equipped holography darkrooms available for student use.

Behaviorism is a school of psychological thought founded on the idea that the expression of a particular behavior is the consequence of stimulus-response experiences. For example, the behaviorist might argue that people engage in particular behaviors because doing so has been associated with reinforcement in the past. Over the course of Winter Study, we will read classic writings from the founders of Behaviorism (e.g., John Watson, B.F. Skinner) and we will consider ways in which these principles apply to our everyday lives. Students will use behaviorist principles to modify human behavior. We will also use these principles to train rats to perform amazing feats. The course will culminate in a "Rat Olympics" in which the success of the conditioning efforts will be assessed in head-to-head competition of conditioned animals. Evaluation will be based on a written report of their experiences conditioning a change in human behavior as well as a written report of the conditioning methods used in training their rat Olympians. The Olympics will be held on the final day of Winter Study.