Essel Program - 2003 Annual Report
The Neuroscience Program The Neuroscience Program at Williams College continued to flourish this year, with the Introduction to Neuroscience course maintaining a strong enrollment of 64 students. Additionally, eight senior women participated in the Neuroscience Seminar to complete the concentration and comprise the neuroscientists of the class of 2003. Essel funds also supported five Neuroscience honors theses. A more detailed summary of the accomplishments of the Neuroscience students and faculty in this, the 11th year of the Essel Neuroscience Program follows. I.
Undergraduate Research Fellows: II. Williams Neuroscience Faculty: The faculty was actively engaged in research and teaching this past year. Faculty publications that were supported in part by Essel funds are listed in Appendix III and a summary of all of their work in addition to publications can be found in Appendix IV. A complete report of their efforts this year can also be found in Annual Report of Science at Williams or viewed on the William's web page at www.williams.edu/go/sciencecenter /center/RS03html/RepSci2003-Contents.html. Appendix V enumerates all other current sources of funding for Neuroscience faculty and the corresponding project. III. Neuroscience Courses: This
year in the Introduction to Neuroscience course (NSCI 201) we expanded
the laboratory component to five labs from the previous four. This year
we also required a written lab report, paralleling the college’s
new emphasis on stressing writing skills. IV. Essel Fellow: Dr.
Luis Schettino, PhD in Neural Sciences from Rutgers University, 2002,
accomplished a lot during his first year as the Senior Essel fellow this
year. He did an excellent job running the Introduction to Neuroscience
labs and helped to re-introduce a new popular lab session involving EMGs.
He worked throughout the year to set up EEG/ERP (electroencephalo-graphy/event-related
potentials) equipment in order to continue his graduate research on the
neural basis of motor control. This year, Dr. Schettino has plans to begin
a collaboration project with Dr. Zottoli examining the speed of response
of tadpoles to noxious stimulation including light touch, loud sounds
and dragonfly larva attack using this new equipment. Dr Schettino also
succeeded in completing two articles for publication that have been accepted
in Experimental Brain Research and Neuropsychologia. V. Colloquium Speakers: The Neuroscience program had continued success in bringing interesting and qualified speakers to campus this year. A listing of these speakers and their topics and affiliations can be found in Appendix VI. VI. Williams College Program for Undergraduates at the Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole. Dr. Steve Zottoli continued to direct the Williams College Program for undergraduate studies at the MBL. Additional funding for the program was provided by Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Nan and Howard Schow. A summary of the student's activities can be found in Appendix IX. APPENDIX I: 2002 ESSEL NEUROSCIENCE FELLOWS
Student: Christina Adams ('03)
Student: Nicolas Bamat ('04)
Student: Abigail Davidson ('03)
Student: Heather Foran ('04)
Student: Shakierah Fuller ('03)
Student: Alexander Gordon ('04)
Student: Brian Kelly ('02) Student:
Susan Kim ('02)
Student: James Nick LaFave ('03)
Student: Jessica O'Brien ('03)
Student: Melody Samuels ('02)
Student: Lindsay Taglieri ('04)
Student: Jessica Tierney ('03) APPENDIX II: ABSTRACTS OF NEUROSCIENCE HONORS THESIS Sex
Differences in the Effects of Estradiol Pretreatment on Neural and Christina Adams Temporary occlusion of blood flow to the brain -- ischemia -- is associated with extensive cell death in the hippocampus as well as impairments in memory. Recent findings suggest that pretreatment with estradiol may minimize the extent of damage to the hippocampus. This investigation examined the effects of transient global ischemia on working memory, the potential protective effects of estradiol, as well as potential sex differences in the effects of ischemia and estradiol on memory and hippocampal morphology. Male and female Sprague-Dawley rats were gonadectomized and implanted with silastic capsules containing either 17 ?-Estradiol or Cholesterol vehicle. Half the animals in each group were subjected to transient global ischemia through the use of a 4-vessel occlusion procedure; the others underwent a sham procedure. Working memory was then assessed with the water T-maze task, in which animals were required to alternate left and right at the choice point. Rats performed 20 trials per day for 4 days, after which they were perfused. Estradiol-treated rats made significantly more alternation errors than their cholesterol-treated counterparts. Male ischemic rats also performed worse on the task than did male rats in the sham surgical condition. Plasma samples were taken at the time of perfusion and assayed for estradiol levels using a radioimmunoassay. Higher levels of estradiol were present in the estradiol-treated females than in the cholesterol-treated females, but levels of estradiol in estradiol-treated males did not significantly surpass levels in cholesterol-treated males. Preliminary histological analysis of coronally-sliced brain sections did not reveal differences in CA1 pyramidal neuron density between test groups for either sex. These findings are discussed in light of an existing literature supporting estradiol’s facilitative and neuroprotective effects on working memory. The Role of Allopregnanolone in Differentiating Lines Selectively Bred for Infantile Vocalizations Abigail Davidson Infants of many species emit vocalizations when separated from their caretakers in order to elicit nourishment, warmth, and protection. Rat pups produce ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) when isolated from their dams; these USVs may reflect the pup’s affective state (e.g. “distress” calls). The number of USVs produced is, to some extent, under genetic control; lines of rats have been selectively bred to emit high or low numbers of these calls. Two experiments examined the role of the anxiolytic neurosteroid allopregnanolone in mediating the behavioral differences between these High- and Low-vocalizing rats. Allopregnanolone is a progesterone metabolite, synthesized in response to stress, which potentiates GABA-evoked chloride currents at the GABAa receptor. In Experiment 1, radioimmunoassays (RIAs) were performed to determine allopregnanolone levels in the hippocampal/amygdaloid region of brains from High- and Low-vocalizing pups in response to maternal separation. These assays revealed that High line pups had more allopregnanolone than Low line pups. Experiment 2 examined the effects on USV production of intracerebroventricular administration of finasteride, an inhibitor of 5 ?-reductase, an enzyme in the biosynthetic pathway of allopregnanolone. Finasteride produced an increase in USVs emitted by Low line pups, but had no effect on High line pups. RIAs confirmed a decrease in allopregnanolone levels after finasteride in both lines. A neural mechanism reconciling these results is proposed. Further work looking at the role of the allopregnanolone/GABAa receptor complex in these selectively-bred lines will help in our understanding of the genetic contribution to individual differences in anxiety disorders. Isolating Polymorphic Microsatellites and Calculating Genetic Relatedness of Individuals from Local House Finch Populations (carpodacus mexicanus) James Nick LaFave Bird song is a learned behavior that is subject to evolutionary pressure through female selection and male-male competition. To compare the relative importance of cultural and genetic effects on the male house finches' songs it is necessary to develop a tool to measure genetic relatedness. This project focuses on developing polymorphic microsatellite markers as that tool. Three polymorphic microsatellites were found using primers developed in closely related species. However, at least six primers are required to collect statistically significant measures of relatedness. A separate protocol was developed to find new microsatellites using RAPD primer enhanced genomic libraries and biotin tagged microsatellite probes. Current evidence suggests that this protocol has successfully isolated microsatellites containing sequences; although the presence of microsatellites has not yet been confirmed through a sequencing reaction. Further research should focus on completing the protocol to isolate new microsatellites and finding at least three more polymorphic microsatellite markers in the house finch. Calculations of genetic relatedness, as performed here with the microsatellites developed to date, can then be combined with measurements of song relatedness. This will provide a powerful tool for researching the different effects of genetics and culture on house finch song.
Jessica O'Brien Estradiol administration has been shown to be neuroprotective with regard to the hippocampal damage resulting from transient global ischemia. While such ischemic events are associated with performance deficits on spatial learning and memory tasks, little is known about the behavioral consequences of pre-ischemic exposure to estradiol. Additionally, it is unclear whether estradiol’s cellular protection is a direct antioxidant effect or requires the binding of estradiol to central estrogen receptors in the brain. The present study examines the neural and behavioral effects of transient global ischemia in male rats as well as the mechanism and degree to which estradiol administered prior to the ischemic event may protect against these consequences. In the first experiment, ischemic rats trained on the Morris Water Maze exhibited learning impairments relative to controls. In the second experiment, 54 male Sprague-Dawley rats were castrated at 35 days of age and implanted subcutaneously with a 10 mm silastic capsule containing either 25% 17 ?-estradiol in cholesterol, 25% 17 ?-estradiol in cholesterol, or cholesterol alone. Two weeks later, rats experienced either 10 minutes of transient global ischemia via 4-vessel occlusion or sham surgical procedures. One week following the ischemic or sham procedure, all rats were tested on the Morris Water Maze. On the first day of testing, each rat received 8 pretraining trials with a visible platform. On the following day, each rat received 12 trials in a different room with the platform hidden below the surface of the water. The latency to escape and the length of the swim path were recorded for each trial. One week following behavioral testing, plasma samples were collected for RIA assay of estradiol levels and the rats were perfused. All groups showed rapid acquisition of the visible platform task. When tested with the hidden platform, however, ischemic rats that were pretreated with cholesterol or 17 ?-estradiol performed significantly worse than all other groups. Pretreatment with 17 ?-estradiol prevented this impairment in performance indicating that estradiol neuroprotection is dependent upon estrogen receptor-mediated mechanisms. Ongoing histological analysis suggests a corresponding protection of cellular death by 17 ?-estradiol pretreatment. Lateralization in the Zebra Finch Song System Jessica Tierney The
avian song system is often used to study the neural correlates of vocal
learning. The central motor pathway consists of several hierarchical,
sequential, and essentially ipsilateral connections. Similarly, the motor
nerve projections to the bipartite vocal organ, the syrinx, are ipsilateral
as well. Furthermore, the syringeal muscles are bilaterally paired and
each syringeal lumen contains a separate oscillatory source. Thus, though
functionally identical the two halves of the avian song system are independent
and act in parallel. This allows for lateralization within the song system;
the right side of the song system is dominant in the control of acoustical
features in zebra finch song. Although the precise location of the asymmetry
(central v. peripheral) is unknown, recent research suggests that song
is lateralized at the level of the syrinx. The bilateral tracheosyringeal
nerve transection and regrowth experiments presented here support these
findings, as the side of syringeal innervation strongly affected control
of acoustical properties of song, whereas the side of the central source
(CNS) did not. Independent of the side of CNS, subjects with innervation
of the right side of the syrinx approached intact measures of entropy,
continuity and pitch to a significantly greater extent than their counterparts
with innervation of the left side. Although the specific mechanisms of
peripheral lateralization are not well understood, these findings suggest
that caution should be exercised in using the avian system as a model
for vocal learning, a human hemispheric asymmetry. APPENDIX III: ESSEL SUPPORTED PUBLICATIONS AND PRESENTATIONS Noah Sandstrom Publications Research
Presentations
Publications Solomon, P.R. (2002). Recognizing the Alzheimer's Disease Patient: The 7 Minute Screen, Revista Neurologica Argentina. Solomon,P.R., Adams F., Silver, A., Zimmer, J., DeVeaux, R. (2002). Ginkgo for memory: Enhancement: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, 288, 835-840. Solomon, P.R. & DeVeaux, R. (2003). Ginko and Memory. Journal of the American Medical Association. (Author’s Reply). 289, 546-548.
Solomon,
P.R. (2003). Repeated MMSE: A screening instrument for Alzheimer’s
Disease. Journal Watch Neurology, 5, 35. “Clinician's Interview-Based Impression of Change Plus Caregiver Input (CIBIC+).” Abbott Laboratories, Investigators Meeting, Chicago, IL. “The Alzheimer’s Disease Assessment Scale.” Abbott Laboratories, Investigators Meeting, Chicago, IL. "New Discoveries in Alzheimer’s Disease and Dementia Care.” Annual Meeting of Northeastern New York Alzheimer’s Association, Glens Falls, NY. “What Are the Standards for Judging Efficacy of Nutraceuticals: A Perspective from a Clinical Trial of Ginkgo Biloba for Memory.” NIH Symposia “Science and Medicine” Nutracon, Anaheim, CA. "Recent Developments in the Diagnosis and Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease." Wesley Health Care Center, Saratoga Springs, NY. “Clinical Research in the Nursing Home.” Bennington Health & Rehabiliation, Bennington, VT. “Alzheimer’s Disease: What Is New? – Case Study Presentation,” Troy Physicians, Troy, NY. "Can You Screen for Alzheimer’s Disease Using the Internet?” Community Care. “ Identifying and Treating the Alzheimer’s Disease Patient.” Rutland Physicians, Rutland, VT. “Aging and Memory – What’s Normal, What’s Not.” Berkshire Institute for Lifetime Learning, Berkshire Community College, Pittsfield, MA. Research
Presentations Murphy, C.A, Solomon, T.M., Im* A., Stashwick* C., Solomon, P.R. (2003). "Is Alzheimer’s Disease Being Diagnosed Earlier? A 10-Year Retrospective Analysis." International Psychogeriatric Association, Eleventh International Congress, Chicago, IL. Solomon, P.R., Ruiz, M.A., Murphy, C.A. (2003). "The Alzheimer’s Disease Caregiver Questionnaire: Initial Validation of a Screening Instrument." International Psychogeriatric Association, Eleventh International Congress, Chicago, IL.
Publications Zottoli, S.J., Freemer, M.M. (2003). Recovery of C-starts, equilibrium and targeted feeding after whole spinal cord crush in the adult goldfish Carassius auratus. J Exp Biol. 206, 3015-29.
Publications Zimmerberg, B., Rosenthal* A.J., & Stark* A.C. (2003). Neonatal social isolation alters both maternal and pup behaviors in rats. Developmental Psychobiology, 42, 52-63. Invited
Talks Research
Presentations Zimmerberg,
B., Davidson* A.N., & Kim* J.H. (2003, March). Early deprivation alters
the vocalization behavior of neonates in a rat model of child neglect.
Presented at the New York Academy of Sciences meeting, "Roots of
Mental Illness in Children", New York, NY. APPENDIX IV: NEUROSCIENCE FACULTY ACCOMPLISHMENTS Professor Noah Sandstrom
Professor Noah Sandstrom had a very productive first year as an Assistant
Professor for the Neuroscience program. His research interests include
examining the effects of hormonal modulation on cognitive processes such
as attention and memory. The neuroprotective effects of estrogens are
another research interest which was the focus of the work of his two thesis
students, Jessica O'Brien and Christina Adams. They were able to show
that estrogens can minimize the damage resulting from transient global
ischemia using a variety of surgical, behavioral and histological techniques.
Professor Paul Solomon has continued his research on Alzheimer's Disease, doing screenings and research at the Memory Clinic in Bennington, Vermont. Several newspapers and popular science magazines highlighted his latest studies regarding the effects of gingko on memory. In addition, Professor Solomon has served the community with his numerous invited talks. During this year, he concentrated his teaching efforts by undertaking multiple sections of experimentation and statistics, a required course for a Psychology major at Williams.
Professor Heather Williams taught the Senior Seminar in Neuroscience and
team-taught Introduction to Neuroscience (with Prof. Zimmerberg of the
Psychology Department) in the fall of 2002. In the spring of 2003, she
offered an upper-level course in Sensory Biology. She continued as Chair
of the Biology Department.
Professor Betty Zimmerberg continued her research on the neural mechanisms
underlying behavioral responses to fearful situations and how experiences
of early deprivation, like child neglect, might impair developing coping
behavior. The research was supported by a grant from the National Science
Foundation, entitled “Early Experience and Neurosteroid Response
to Stress”. At the beginning of last summer, Abigail Davidson ‘03
and Abigail Rosenthal ’02 joined Zimmerberg in Capri, Italy, to
present their research at the International Behavioral Neuroscience Society.
During the summer, Melody Samuels ’02, Abigail Davidson ’03
and Shakierah Fuller ’03 all worked on a new project using a novel
animal model of anxiety, rats bred for high and low rates of vocalization
after brief maternal separation. Abby and Shakierah continued their research
throughout the year and submitted their work as honors theses. In November,
Zimmerberg presented research conducted on her leave at the University
of Cagliari, Italy, at the annual meeting of the Society for Neuroscience
in Orlando, Florida, entitled “Neonatal isolation alters cortical
GABA(a) receptor subunit mRNA expression and cortical allopregnanolone
(3a-hydroxy-5a-pregnan-20-one) levels in rats”. In the spring, Ju
Kim ’04 joined Zimmerberg in New York to give an invited presentation
of their research at the New York Academy of Sciences meeting, "Roots
of Mental Illness in Children".
Dr. Z was on leave for the academic year. During this time he conducted experiments on regeneration of the nervous system and submitted a paper for publication. In addition, he collaborated with colleagues Melina Hale at the University of Chicago and Manny Azizi and Andie Ward at the University of Massachusetts at Amherst on two projects which are near compltion and are being written for publication. He also continued his role as director of the Howard Hughes medical institute Grant to Williams College and continued as the President of the Grass Foundation. He continues to bring students to the Marine Biological Laboratory in Woods Hole, Ma as a part of the Williams- Marine Biological Laboratory Program supported by the Howeard Hughes Mecial Institute, the Essel Foundation and Howard and Nan Schow. (Appendix IX). APPENDIX V: OUTSIDE SOURCES OF FUNDING Early
Experience and Neurosteroid Response to Stress. Research Grant from APPENDIX VI: ESSEL-SPONSERED COLLOQUIUM SPEAKERS October
24th, 2002 October
25th, 2002 November
21st, 2002 February
2nd, 2003 April
25th, 2003 APPENDIX VIII: UPPER LEVEL NEUROSCIENCE CLASSES AND EMPIRICAL PROJECTS NSCI 401 - Topics in Neuroscience - Heather Williams Neuroscientists explore issues inherent in the study of brain and behavior. The overall objective of this seminar is to create a culminating senior experience in which previous course work in specific areas in the Neuroscience Program can be brought to bear in a synthetic, interdisciplinary approach to understanding complex problems. The specific goals for students in this seminar are (1) to evaluate original research and critically examine the experimental evidence for theoretical issues, and (2) to gain an understanding of this discipline through group work, and oral presentations. Topics and instructional formats will vary somewhat from year to year, but in all cases the course will emphasize an integrative approach in which students will be asked to consider topics from a range of perspectives including molecular, cellular, systems, behavioral and clinical neuroscience. Previous topics have included memory, autism, depression, alcoholism, language development, and stress. Format: student-led discussions and presentations, three hours a week. Evaluation will be based on presentations, participation in class discussion, and a term paper.
How
are important conditions or changes in the environment received and transduced
by organisms? We will examine the molecular and cellular bases of the
Diagnosing and treating neurological diseases is the final frontier of medicine. Recent advances in neuroscience have had a profound impact on the understanding of diseases that affect cognition, behavior, and emotion. This course provides an in-depth analysis of the relationship between brain dysfunction and diseased state. We will focus on neurodegenerative disorders including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and Huntington's disease. We will consider diagnosis of disease, treatment strategies, as well as social and ethical issues. The course is taught in the tutorial format and provides students with the opportunity to present material based upon: (1) review of published literature, (2) analysis of case histories, and (3) observations of diagnosis and treatment of patients both live and on videotape. Students design and conduct an empirical project. Format: tutorial. Evaluation based on position papers, class participation, and research project report.
This
course studies the relationship between behavior and neurochemical changes
in the brain. It begins with a detailed study of neurotransmitter systems,
drug-receptor interactions, and sources of individual differences in drug
response, such as gender and genetics. Special topics include the behavioral
consequences of prenatal drug exposure, the role of classical and operant
conditioning in the development and maintenance of alcohol and drug abuse,
the neural basis of reward, and the interaction between cerebral lateralization
and behavioral effects of drugs. Format: lecture, discussion and required
empirical project. Requirements: an hour exam, an oral presentation, and
a written report of research. This course will have several short writing
exercises, and a final minimum 15-page paper that will be submitted in
4 sequential parts with revisions. The emphasis is on learning how to
write clear and elegant scientific prose.
This course studies the relationship between hormones and behavior. We review the mechanisms by which hormones act in the nervous system. We also investigate how hormones influence behavior as well as how behavior and experiences alter hormonal function. Specific topics to be examined include: sexual differentiation; courtship, reproduction and parental behavior; aggression; and learning and memory. Students critically review data from both human and animal studies. Format: seminar. Requirements: midterm and final exams, seminar presentations and participation in discussions, written and oral presentation of final project.
APPENDIX IX: REPORT ON THE 2002 WILLIAMS COLLEGE Dates:
June 9-August 17, 2002 Director: Steve Zottoli Funding support: Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Nan and Howard Schow and the Essel Foundation. Williams College ’02 Student Participants: Christina
E. Adams ‘03 Assistant: Simon Ghebru (junior in high school, Minneapolis, MN) Preparation prior to going to the Marine Biological Laboratory: Two weeks were spent at Williams College preparing for the stay at the Marine Biological Laboratory (MBL) in Woods Hole, MA. The preparation consisted of lectures, readings, laboratory exercises and discussions (i.e., a short course in neurobiology). Students were provided with reprints of original literature pertaining to the research of those individuals who they would interact with at the MBL. They were encouraged to start reading this material. Student scheduled activities while at the MBL: Once in Woods Hole, the day was divided to provide Williams students with an exposure to the diversity of teaching and research at the MBL. Students attended lectures in the morning, met with scientists at lunch, conducted research in the afternoon and attended seminars in the evening. Social activities included a whale watch, cookouts and softball. Morning sessions: As was true last year, our laboratory space was contiguous with the MBL SPINES course (Summer Program in Neuroscience, Ethics and Survival). The individuals in the SPINES course are underrepresented minority students and provided role models for the students in the Williams program. This was the first year that the Williams College students and SPINES students attended morning lecture/laboratory sessions together for three weeks. Richard LeBaron, University of Texas San Antonio, directed morning sessions for the first week (6/24/02) on tissue culture. Students learned dissection of the rat embryo brain to isolate hippocampal neurons, they learned how to dissociate and culture the neurons. Ruben Hernandez, University of Texas San Antonio, directed the second week (7/1/02) and focused on electrophysiology of the the rat hippocampal slice. Students learned how to dissect and prepare a hippocampal slice for recording. They recorded extracellularly from the slice and evoked long-term potentiation (LTP). Steve Zottoli, Williams College, directed the third week (7/8/02) and presented an introduction to studies of single cells in the vertebrate central nervous system. The Williams students taught the SPINES students the various experimental techniques they had learned over their first few weeks at the MBL. These techniques included: microelectrode pulling, dissection, recording from single neurons in the cunner brain, perfusion of a fish in preparation for sectioning and staining of brain slices. The MBL is a world-renowned center for research and teaching in the sciences. Many courses are given in the summer months and after the 3-week session with the SPINES students was completed, Williams students were asked to attend morning lectures in one or more of the following courses: Embryology, Neurobiology, Neural Systems and Behavior, Methods in Computational Neuroscience, Parasitology and Physiology courses. Lunch Sessions with MBL Scientists: Steve arranged for students to meet with resident MBL neuroscientists during lunch. Students were required to read the papers of these scientists before the meeting. Steve would typically meet with the students to discuss the papers before their scheduled meeting to insure that they understood the hypothesis and how it was to be tested. Based on their readings, students prepared questions to ask the scientists. The discussion ranged from science to career paths, to ethics, etc. Meetings with other specific scientists were arranged on request assuming that the scientist in question was free to meet. Original Research Component An important part of the summer program involved an original research experience. Students worked as a team on the research project described below. The objective was to train each student in the techniques necessary to record from a single neuron in the vertebrate brain, and then to use these techniques in an original research project. Research Description: Physiological studies on the dorsal cells in the cunner, Tautoglabrus adspersus. A number of fish have large neurons called supramedullary neurons or dorsal cells depending on whether they are located on the medulla oblongata or spinal cord respectively. Although these neurons have been known for over 100 years their function is still a mystery. Intracellular recordings were made from individual dorsal cells while stimulating a number of potential sources of afferent input (e.g., skin). Once recording techniques were mastered, the students studied the effect of the anesthetic tricaine on physiological parameters of these cells (i.e., spike height and current needed to evoke a response). The independent project resulted in a short note to be published in the Biological Bulletin. Evening Seminars: Students were encouraged to attend Monday and Wednesday evening seminars sponsored by the neuroscience community at MBL and the Friday evening series on broad topics in biology.
A series of activities were organized to broaden the exposure of the Williams Students to the vibrant scientific community at the MBL. A collecting trip on the MBL fishing vessel, Sagitta, a pizza party and a number of Sunday cookouts were organized to allow social interaction between the SPINES group and the Williams group. Other undergraduates are in residence at the MBL working in laboratories either individually, as part of a NSF-RUI funded program, or as part of an HHMI funded Hunter College program. Williams students met informally with some of these undergraduates at lunches, at social events (e.g., cookouts, softball and whale watch), and in the laboratory. We hosted the Williams College Summer Science Program for Minority Students for a day. The SSP is a 5-week program on the Williams College campus and exposes minority students who have been accepted to Williams College to basic material in English, mathematics, biology and chemistry. The SSP students drove down from Williams College, and we gave them a tour of the facilities, including our laboratory, as well as a series of presentations of the research conducted at the MBL. These presentations were followed by a picnic.
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